Corporal punishment and children's externalizing problems: A cross-sectional study of Tanzanian primary school aged children☆
Section snippets
Prevalence of corporal punishment in Tanzania and other low-income countries
The prevalence and effects of corporal punishment have been controversial topics for decades (Gámez-Guadix et al., 2010, Gershoff, 2002, Gershoff, 2010, Gershoff, 2013, Straus, 2001). Corporal punishment is commonly defined as ‘the use of physical force with the intention of causing (bodily) pain, but not necessarily injury, for purposes of correction or control of the child's behavior’ (Straus, 2010).
Research conducted in multiple countries has indicated that corporal punishment by parents is
Participants
The children participating in this study were enrolled at a private primary school in a town of approximately 100,000 inhabitants in southern Tanzania. We interviewed 409 children (52% boys) from class 2 to class 7 with a mean age of 10.49 (SD = 1.89, range: 6–15) years. The majority of the children lived together with their families. We asked the children to list all persons with whom they stayed together in one household. For example 67% (n = 273) of the children reported living together in one
Occurrence of corporal punishment
Accounting for all forms of corporal punishment reviewed in the present study, 95% of the children reported that they have experienced at least one type of corporal punishment by their parents or caregivers during their lifetime (51% within the previous 12 months). The majority of the children have been punished with objects like sticks or belts (82%) or by being slapped, hit or pinched (66%). Almost one quarter (24%) has been hit so hard that he/she was injured. Additionally, about 95%
Discussion
In accordance with our hypothesis we found very high rates of exposure to corporal punishment in our sample. Almost all children reported having experienced at least one type of corporal punishment at home. In addition, more than half of the children indicated having experienced at least one type of corporal punishment by a parent or a caregiver in the past 12 months. The majority of the children (82%) stated that they have been punished with sticks, belts or other objects, and almost one
Conclusion
The present study provides evidence for the first time that Tanzanian children of primary school age experience high rates of corporal punishment. Furthermore, the results revealed that corporal punishment is closely linked to children's externalizing problems.
The findings of the present study emphasize the need to inform caregivers, governmental organizations and the population at large, especially in low-income countries, about the adverse consequences associated with using corporal
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to all the children who participated in this study for their readiness to participate and willingness to discuss often intimate and painful subjects. We also wish to thank all of the teachers, the head teacher and the director of the school for their support while conducting this study. We are very grateful to our very motivated and reliable German and Tanzanian research team, including: Manswab Geho, Huruma Kipagile, Getrude Mkinga, Andrew Mtitu, Zephania Ngowi, Lulu Nziku,
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This research was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) and by the NGO vivo international.