Table 3

Characteristics of included observational studies

Study ID	Study setting	Dates of data collection	Population	Food environment characteristic/s	Outcome
Cohort studies
Seto, 202071	Kunming, China, Neighbourhood	Not reported	12 adults aged 18–31 (mean age 24.6). With average BMI of 21.0. 17% with overweight.	Acc	D
Wang, 201234	China, Neighbourhood	2004 and 2006	185 children aged 6%–18. 51% female.	Av	N
Xu, 201335	9 provinces, China, Neighbourhood	2000–2009	13 993 male and 15 125 female person-years. Mean age ranged between 44 and 51 over the period 2000–2006.	Av	H
Case–control studies
Setiyaningsih, 201936	Surakarta, Indonesia, School	April 2019	225 children from 15 schools including 75 with obesity and 150 normal weight.	Av	H
Cross-sectional studies
Alves, 201976	Florianopolis, Brazil, Neighbourhood	September 2012–June 2013	2484 children aged 7–14 (mean age 10.4). 56.5% female. 66.8% normal weight.	Acc	D
Assis, 201950	Juiz de Fora, Brazil, Neighbourhood	July 2011– December 2021	661 children aged 7–14 (median age 11). 51.7% female.	Av	H
Azeredo, 201689	Brazil; School	2012	109104 students majority aged 11%–14. 52.2% female.	Av	D
Backes, 201951	Sao Leopoldo, Brazil, Neighbourhood	2015	1096 women aged 20–69 years. 33.1% with obesity.	Av	H
Barrera, 201684	Cuernavaca and Guadalajara, Mexico, School	October 2012–March 2013	725 children aged 9–11 (median age 10). 56.8% female. 24.8% with overweight and 20.7% with obesity.	Av	H
Bekker, 201730	Bloemfontein, South Africa, School	Not reported	257 students aged 7–14 took part in the quantitative data collection. 61.1% female.	Av	D
Camargo, 201962	Campinas, Brazil, Neighbourhood	July 2014– December 2014	Residents aged 18+ of two low-income areas.	Av	H
Charoenbut, 201829	Samutprakarn province, Thailand, Workplace	March–June 2011.	924 workers from 26 industrial factories. 39.1% aged 31%–40. 56.5% female.	Av, M&R, D	D
Chor, 201672	6 cities, Brazil, Neighbourhood	August 2008– December 2010	14749 civil servants at teaching and research institutions aged 35–74 (median age 51 years). 54.4% women.	Acc	D
Corrêa, 201852	Florianopolis, Brazil, Neighbourhood	September 2012–June 2013	2195 children aged 7%–14. 47.7% female. The prevalence of overweight/obesity was 29.0% for girls, 37.6% for boys.	Av	H
Cunningham-Myrie, 202053	Jamaica, Neighbourhood	2008	2529 participants in a nationally representative survey, aged 18–74 (Mean age of men=37.0 years, mean age of women=36.7 years). 68.5% female. Mean BMI for women 28.4. Mean BMI for men 24.8.	Av; Acc	H
Curioni, 202037	Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Neighbourhood	2012–13	2032 civil servants of a university. 46% aged 45–54 years. 60% women.	Av	D
da Silva, 201966	Minas Gerais, Brazil; Neighbourhood	June 2012–July 2016	965 women and men aged 20–59 years old (mean age: 34.2). 55.2% female. 13.8% with obesity.	Av	H
Dake, 201654	Accra, Ghana, Neighbourhood	2011–2013	657 participants (mean age 31.5). 54.0% female. 23.29% with overweight, 18.6% with obesity.	Av	H
Darfour-Oduro, 202091	24 countries: Malawi, Jordan, Egypt, Maldives, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Fiji, Malaysia, Mongolia, Indonesia, Phillippines, Thailand, Benin, Mauritania, Sudan, Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Syrian Arab Republic, Pakistan, Argentina, Honduras, Tonga, School	2004–2013	89843 children aged 13–17.	M&R	D
de Freitas, 201960	Belo Horizonte, Brazil, Neighbourhood	2013	2810 participants, majority aged 30–59 (54.1%). 88.4% female. Mean BMI 27.8. The majority with overweight (62.6%).	Av; V/P; Price; M&R	H
Duran, 201538	Sao Paulo, Brazil, Neighbourhood	2010–2011	1842 adults aged 20–59 (mean age 36.5). 53% female.	Av; Acc; Price	D
Fernandes, 201731	Ghana, School	2013–2014	4258 children aged 5–17 years. 46.9% female.	Av	D
Gonçalves, 201987	Brazil, School	2013–2014	73399 children aged 12–17 years (mean age 14.4 years) from 1247 schools.	Av; V/P	H
Goryakin, 201539	Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia and Ukraine, Neighbourhood	2010–2011	17998 adults aged 18–95 years.	Av; Acc; M&R	D
Guo, 201864	12 provinces, China, neighbourhood	2011–2013	1416 children aged 7–17.	Av; M&R	H
Guo, 201965	China, Neighbourhood	2000–2013	4803 children aged 7–17.	Av; M&R	H
Hall, 202055	China, Neighbourhood	November 2016–August 2017	1388 women aged 18–67 (median age 41). Mean BMI 24.5% and 64.0% with overweight or obesity.	Av	H
Hua, 201463	Macau, China, Neighbourhood	2011	575 children aged 13–18 from one high school. Mean BMI 21.1.	Av	H
Jaime, 201140	Sao Paulo, Brazil, Neighbourhood	2003	2122 adults aged 18+.	Av	H, D
Kelly, 201470	Thailand, Neighbourhood	2012	1516 students enrolled at an Open University (studying by correspondence and living all over the country). Aged 18–87 (mean age 29).	Av; Acc	H, D, N
Kivuyo, 202073	Punjab, India, Neighbourhood	Not reported	120 African emigrant students in Pubjab. Age range 18->28 years 64.9% aged 23–27.	Acc; D	D
Kroll, 201948	Khayelitsha, South Africa and Ahodwo, Ghana, Neighbourhood	September–November 2017	327 households in Khayelitsha, South Africa and 309 households in Ahodwo, Ghana.	Av	D
Leite, 201741	Santos, Brazil, Neighbourhood	January 2010–June 2011	513 children aged under 10.	Av	D
Leme, 201793	Sao Paulo, Brazil, Home	2014	253 adolescent girls aged 14%–18. 70.4% Hy weight, 18.3% overweight and 8.3% obese.	Acc; D	D
Li, 201185	Xi'an City, China, School	May–November 2004	1792 children aged 11–17 years (mean age 13.9). 49.8% female.	Av; M&R	H
Liu, 201447	nine provinces, China, Neighbourhood	2006	No sample size reported. Aged 18–95 mean age 49.4 for urban and 48.7 for rural participants. 53% female in urban sample, 52% female in the rural sample.	Av; Acc; Conv	D
Liu, 202074	Shenyang, China, Neighbourhood ⁶⁸	May 17th–June 23rd 2017	3670 children (mean age 10.8) from 26 schools. 49% female.	Acc	H, D
Machado, 201782	Brazil, Neighbourhood	2008–2009	55970 households from a nationally representative survey	Price, Conv	D
Matozinhos, 201556	Belo Horizonte, Brazil, Neighbourhood	2008–2010	5273 adults aged 18–93 (mean age 43.6). 56.5% female. 12.1% with obesity.	Av	H
Mendes, 201367	Belo Horizonte, Brazil, Neighbourhood	2008–2009	3404 adults aged 18+ (mean age 39.7).	Av	H
Mendonça, 201942	Belo Horizonte, Brazil, Neighbourhood	2013/2014	3414 adults aged 20+ (mean age 56.7). 88.1% female. 62.7% with overweight or obesity.	Av; V/P	D
Menezes, 201877	Belo Horizonte, Brazil, Neighbourhood	February 2013–June 2014	3414 adults aged 20+ (mean age 56.7). 88.1% female. 62.7% with overweight or obesity.	Acc; Aff; Conv	D
Menezes, 201843	Belo Horizonte, Brazil, Neighbourhood	2015	2944 adults aged 20+ (mean age 56.8). 88.4% female.	Av	D
Miller, 201683	Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Zimbabwe, China, Colombia, Iran, Occupied Palestinian Territory, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Malaysia, Poland, Turkey, South Africa (and three high-income countries: Canada, Sweden, United Arab Emirates, however we extracted data from LMICS only), Neighbourhood	January 1 2003–December 31 2013	128112 adults. UMIC median age 51.0, 60% female, mean BMI 28.4. LMIC median age 51.0, 58% female, mean BMI 25.2. LIC median age 47.0, 57% female, mean BMI 23.3	Aff	D
Nogueira, 201844	Sao Paulo, Brazil, Neighbourhood	February 2015– February 2016	521 adolescents aged 12–19 (mean age 15.5). 49.3% female. 70.4% did not have overweight.	Av	D
Nogueira, 202057	Sao Paulo, Brazil, Neighbourhood	Feb 2015–2016	504 adolescents aged 12%–19. 48.6% female. 29.6% with overweight or obesity.	Av	H
Norbu, 201992	Pemagatshel District, Bhutan, School	Not reported	392 children aged 13–17 (mean age 14.5) from six schools.	Unknown	H
Ochoa-Meza, 201728	six cities, Mexico, School and Home	Nor reported	1434 children aged 10%–12. 49.5% female.	Acc; D	D
Oyeyemi, 201279	Maiduguri, Nigeria, Neighbourhood	August 2010– September 2011	1818 adults aged 20–65 (mean 32.2). 39.9% female. 22.8% with overweight and 8.1% with obesity.	Acc	H
Opal, 201845	Delhi, India, Neighbourhood	2010–2011	5364 adults mean ages 43.7–45.6 across three categories of restaurant density. 50% female.	Av	H, D
Pessoa, 201546	Belo Horizonte, Brazil, Neighbourhood	2008–2010	5611 adults aged 18+ (mean age 39.7). 54.8% female.	Av	D
Rossi, 201881	Florianopolis, Brazil, Neighbourhood	September 2012 –June 2013	2152 children aged 7%–14. 21.5% had overweight and 12.7% had obesity	Acc	H
Trinh, 202061	Vietnam, Neighbourhood	2010–2014	Not reported.	Av	D, N
Vedovato, 201575	Santos City, Brazil, Neighbourhood	January– December 2010	538 dyads, children aged 1–10 and mothers 62.1%	Acc	D
Velásquez-Meléndez, 201368	Belo Horizonte, Brazil, Neighbourhood	2008–2009	3425 adults age 18+ (mean age 39.7). 49.9% female. 44% with overweight or obesity.	Av	H
Watson, 201369	Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia and Ukraine, Neighbourhood	2010	2899 adults. 55.3% female. Male participants mean age 42.0 and mean BMI 25.4. Female participants mean age 43.7 and mean BMI 25.3.	Av; Acc; Price; M&R	H
Wertheim-Heck, 201932	Hanoi, Vietnam, Neighbourhood	2017–2018	400 women of “childbearing age”	Acc	D
Widiyanto, 201888	Java, Indonesia, School	December 2017	200 children in junior high school (age not reported). 72% female. 58% with BMI <23	Av; D	H
Wijnhoven, 2014107	Bulgaria (and other HIC countries—results for Bulgaria extracted for our review), School	September 2007–December 2008	179 schools, at least 15 children per school.	Av	H
Yazdi Feyzabadi, 201790	Iran, School	February–March 2015.	1242 14 year olds. 47.8% female.	Av; M&R; Acc; D	D
Zhang, 201249	China, Neighbourhood	2006	9788 adults. 52.7% female. 23.2% with overweight, 4.9% with obesity.	Av	D
Zhang, 201680	China, Neighbourhood	2009 and 2011	348 children aged 6–17 (mean age 10.9). 49.7% female.	Acc	H
Zhang, 202058	China, Neighbourhood	2013–2014	170872 adults aged 18+. 57.3% female.	Av	H
Zheng, 201394	China, Home	2008–2009	5662 children aged 6%–18. 50.5% female.	Av; D	H
Zhou, 201759	Wuhan, China, Neighbourhood	2010	189 adults aged 35–49. Mean BMI for men 25.5 and mean BMI for women 23.9.	Av	H
Zhou, 202086	Beijing, China, School	May–June in 2016.	2201 students from 37 schools (mean age 10.2).	Av	H
Zuccolotto, 201578	Brazil, Neighbourhood	May–November 2012	282 pregnant women in the second-trimester living in Brazil. Most between 20–29 years.	Acc; D	D

Acc, Accessibility; Aff, Affordability; Av, Availability; Conv, Convenience; D, Desirability; D, Diet; H, Health; M&R, Marketing and regulation; N, Nutrition; V/P, Vendor or product properties.