Study site (year) | SP–provider interactions | Tracer conditions | Healthcare sector | Facility location | Provider selection approach | Provider consent | Provider participation* |
China (2013) | 600 | Angina, child diarrhoea | Public | Rural | Census of all clinics designated under the New Cooperative Medical Scheme (ie, the major public health insurance programme in rural areas), followed by random selection of providers | Yes | 100% |
China (2015) | 299 | Presumptive TB | Public | Rural | Census of all public providers followed by random sampling from one prefecture in each of 3 provinces out of a total of 47 prefectures, chosen to be representative of rural health systems | Yes | 274/274 (100%) |
Kenya (2014) | 166 | Angina, asthma, child diarrhoea, presumptive TB | Public and private | Urban | Non-random convenience sample designed to include low-income, middle-income and high-income neighbourhoods in various Nairobi areas | Yes | 46/49 (93.9%) |
Madhya Pradesh, India (2010–2011) | 1123 | Angina, asthma, child diarrhoea | Public and private | Rural | Census of all medical care providers working in 60 villages randomly sampled in three districts in Madhya Pradesh; all public providers and qualified private providers were automatically sampled; for each public provider, the closest private practitioner was also sampled | No | Not applicable |
Delhi, India (2014) | 250 | Presumptive and confirmed TB, presumptive MDR-TB | Private | Urban | Convenience sample (pilot study) | Yes | Not available |
Mumbai and Patna, India (2014–2015) | 2602 | Presumptive and confirmed TB, presumptive MDR-TB | Private | Urban | Street-by-street mapping of private providers who were known to see adult outpatients with respiratory symptoms, followed by random sampling stratified by provider qualification and private provider interface agency registration status | No | Not applicable |
Birbhum district, West Bengal, India (2012–2014) | 823 | Angina, respiratory distress, child diarrhoea | Private | Rural | Census of private health providers who had been practising for at least 3 years in 203 villages across Birbhum district | Yes | 304/360 (84.4%) |
Mumbai, Patna and Delhi, India (2014–2015) | 1200 | Presumptive TB, confirmed TB | Pharmacies | Urban | Convenience sample of 54 pharmacies from 28 low-income localities in Delhi (pilot phase), random sampling of pharmacies in Mumbai and Patna from a list of all pharmacies registered in the two cities | No | Not applicable |
Udupi district, Karnataka, India (2018) | 1522 | For both adults and children: upper respiratory tract infection, diarrhoea, presumptive malaria | Pharmacies | Urban and rural | Of the 350 pharmacies registered in the district as per the local pharmacy association, 279 were considered eligible for the study after excluding those operating inside hospitals (47), those permanently closed or under renovations (10), those that could not be identified by the field team (4), those for veterinarian purposes only (1) and those used for SP training (10). | No | Not applicable |
*For studies in which provider consent was required.
MDR-TB, multidrug resistant tuberculosis; SP, standardised patient; TB, tuberculosis.