Baseline characteristics* | Standard-of-care | IYCF | WASH | IYCF+WASH |
Mothers | 68 | 67 | 81 | 102 |
Infants | 68 | 68 | 83 | 104 |
Mothers completing baseline visit | 67 | 65 | 80 | 101 |
Household characteristics | ||||
Median no of occupants (IQR) | 5 (3–6) | 4 (3–6) | 5 (3–6) | 4 (3–6) |
Wealth quintile:† | ||||
1 (lowest) | 16/68 (23.5%) | 14/67 (20.9%) | 20/81 (24.7%) | 28/102 (27.5%) |
2 | 16/68 (23.5%) | 13/67 (19.4%) | 15/81 (18.5%) | 19/102 (18.6%) |
3 | 12/68 (17.7%) | 13/67 (19.4%) | 19/81 (23.5%) | 17/102 (16.7%) |
4 | 8/68 (11.8%) | 17/67 (25.4%) | 11/81 (13.6%) | 17/102 (16.7%) |
5 (highest) | 14/68 (20.6%) | 8/67 (11.9%) | 13/81 (16.1%) | 19/102 (18.6%) |
Electricity | ||||
Connected to power grid | 3/66 (4.6%) | 3/65 (4.6%) | 0/78 (0.0%) | 3/100 (4.0%) |
Other power source | ||||
Use a generator | 2/66 (3.0%) | 3/65 (4.6%) | 0/78 (0.0%) | 3/100 (3.0%) |
Use solar power | 45/66 (68.2%) | 44/65 (67.7%) | 56/78 (71.8%) | 64/100 (64.0%) |
No electricity | 19/66 (28.8%) | 18/65 (27.7%) | 22/78 (28.2%) | 33/100 (33.0%) |
Sanitation | ||||
Household members defecate in the open | 177/302 (58.6%) | 151/282 (53.6%) | 182/337 (54.0%) | 196/426 (46.0%) |
Any latrine at household | 18/66 (27.3%) | 28/62 (45.2%) | 29/77 (37.7%) | 37/96 (38.5%) |
Improved latrine at household | 17/66 (25.8%) | 24/62 (38.7%) | 25/77 (32.5%) | 36/96 (37.5%) |
Improved latrine with well-trodden path and not shared with other households and not used for storage | 12/64 (18.8%) | 28/60 (31.7%) | 29/76 (27.6%) | 23/94 (24.5%) |
Water | ||||
Main source of household drinking water is improved | 41/66 (62.1%) | 36/62 (58.1%) | 44/77 (57.1%) | 59/96 (61.5%) |
Treat drinking water to make it safer | 13/64 (20.3%) | 11/62 (17.7%) | 10/77 (13.0%) | 13/96 (13.5%) |
Median one-way walk time to fetch water (IQR); min | 10 (5–20) | 9 (3–15) | 10 (5–15) | 9 (5–20) |
Mean water volume collected per person in past 24 hours (SD); L | 8.7 (4.6) | 9.4 (6.7) | 9.1 (6.7) | 10.3 (8.2) |
Hygiene | ||||
Hand-washing station at household | 3/54 (5.6%) | 4/62 (6.5%) | 11/74 (14.9%) | 15/91 (16.5%) |
Hand-washing station with water and rubbing agent | 0/54 (0.0%) | 0/60 (0.0%) | 0/74 (0.0%) | 1/91 (1.1%) |
Improved floor‡ | 31/65 (47.7%) | 35/65 (53.9%) | 35/77 (45.5%) | 48/98 (49.0%) |
Median no of chickens (IQR) | 4 (1–8) | 6 (2–10.5) | 5 (3–8) | 4 (1–8) |
Livestock observed inside home | 28/66 (42.4%) | 19/67 (28.4%) | 34/79 (43.0%) | 33/99 (33.3%) |
Faeces observed in yard | 25/65 (38.5%) | 18/66 (27.3%) | 27/78 (34.6%) | 17/98 (17.4%) |
Diet quality and food security | ||||
Household meets minimum dietary diversity§ | 21/55 (38.2%) | 22/57 (38.6%) | 24/74 (32.9%) | 37/83 (44.6%) |
Median Coping Strategies Index score¶ (IQR) | 4 (0–9.5) | 2 (0–15) | 3 (0–11) | 1 (0–9) |
Maternal characteristics | ||||
Mean age (SD), years | 30.8 (5.7) | 30.9 (7.2) | 30.4 (5.7) | 30.9 (5.8) |
Mean height (SD), cm | 161.3 (7.8) | 160.3 (6.4) | 160.5 (5.3) | 159 (6.6) |
Mean mid-upper arm circumference (SD), cm | 26.8 (3.4) | 26.3 (3.6) | 26.4 (2.2) | 26.5 (2.8) |
Positive microscopy for Schistosoma haematobium | 6/67 (9.0%) | 4/65 (6.2%) | 12/78 (15.4%) | 9/101 (8.9%) |
Mean years of completed schooling (SD) | 9.5 (1.8) | 9.1 (2.1) | 8.7 (2.2) | 9.3 (2.1) |
Median parity (IQR) | 3 (1–3) | 2 (1–3) | 3 (2–4) | 2 (1–3) |
Married | 61/64 (95.3%) | 59/63 (93.7%) | 71/73 (97.3%) | 85/92 (92.4%) |
Employed | 5/65 (7.7%) | 5/65 (7.7%) | 8/78 (10.3%) | 8/100 (8.0%) |
Religion | ||||
Apostolic | 34/63 (54.0%) | 32/63 (50.8%) | 34/74 (46.0%) | 46/93 (49.5%) |
Other christian religions | 25/63 (39.7%) | 25/63 (39.7%) | 30/74 (40.5%) | 41/93 (44.1%) |
Other | 4/63 (6.4%) | 6/63 (9.5%) | 10/74 (13.5%) | 6/93 (6.5%) |
HIV disease severity and treatment | ||||
Mean CD4 count in pregnancy (SD)**, cells/µL | 474 (180) | 478 (186) | 421 (187) | 470 (217) |
Antiretroviral therapy during pregnancy†† | 60/68 (88.2%) | 60/67 (89.6%) | 65/81 (80.3%) | 90/102 (88.2%) |
Cotrimoxazole prophylaxis during pregnancy‡‡ | 40/68 (58.8%) | 42/67 (62.7%) | 55/81 (67.9%) | 63/102 (61.8%) |
Infant characteristics | ||||
Female | 33/68 (48.5%) | 32/63 (47.1%) | 39/83 (47.0%) | 55/104 (52.9%) |
Mean birth weight (SD), kg | 3.03 (0.45) | 2.94 (0.49) | 3.07 (0.66) | 3.02 (0.50) |
Low birth weight <2500 g | 8/68 (11.8%) | 10/68 (14.7%) | 6/83 (7.2%) | 11/104 (10.6%) |
Institutional delivery | 59/64 (92.2%) | 55/66 (83.3%) | 67/79 (84.8%) | 85/92 (92.4%) |
Vaginal delivery | 62/66 (93.9%) | 57/62 (87.7%) | 76/80 (95.0%) | 90/98 (91.8%) |
*Baseline variables presented for mothers who had live births; maternal and household data were collected about 2 weeks after consent (~14 weeks gestation); this gap created opportunity for lost to follow-up between consent and baseline, thus the number of mothers completing the baseline visit is fewer than the number of mothers with live births. Baseline for infants was at birth. Values are %, unless noted. For variables where (n) is not stated, <3% of data are missing based on number of baseline visits completed.
†Chasekwa et al.23
‡Improved floor defined as concrete, brick, cement or tile. Unimproved floor defined as mud, earth, sand or dung.
§FAO, FHI 360. Minimum Dietary Diversity for Women: A Guide for Measurement. Rome: FAO. 2016.
¶Maxwell et al.24
**CD4 count at baseline visit, or at 32 gestational week visit if no baseline result.
††Includes any exposure to antiretroviral therapy during pregnancy; Includes anydocumented exposure to anti-retroviral therapy during pregnancy.
‡‡Includes any exposure to co-trimoxazole during pregnancy; Includes any documented exposure to co-trimoxazole during pregnancy.
IYCF, infant and young child feeding; WASH, water, sanitation and hygiene.