Birth weight† | Nutritional status† | Maternal education | ||||||||||
Country | Round | Low | Normal | P value | Stunted | Non-stunted | P value | No education | Any primary | Any secondary | Above secondary | P value |
Bangladesh | 1 | −0.71 (0.04) 510 | −0.51 (0.03) 1317 | <0.001 | −0.73 (0.03) 820 | −0.42 (0.03) 1007 | <0.001 | −0.73 (0.04) 625 | −0.67 (0.05) 397 | −0.41 (0.04) 783 | 0.75 (0.25) 22 | <0.001 |
Brazil | 2 | 0.23 (0.86) 415 | 0.73 (0.79) 994 | <0.001 | 0.09 (0.9) 218 | 0.67 (0.8) 1194 | <0.001 | 0.26 (0.77) 35 | 0.55 (0.85) 1031 | 0.63 (0.81) 242 | * | 0.041 |
3 | 0.37 (0.88) 401 | 0.87 (0.87) 959 | <0.001 | 0.18 (1.01) 184 | 0.81 (0.85) 1177 | <0.001 | 0.2 (0.91) 32 | 0.69 (0.87) 988 | 0.79 (1) 240 | * | 0.002 | |
Chile 1 | 1 | * | 0.51 (0.46) 128 | N/A | * | 0.5 (0.47) 126 | N/A | * | 0.57 (0.4) 48 | 0.48 (0.51) 69 | 0.42 (0.42) 10 | 0.511 |
2 | * | 0.16 (0.53) 1611 | N/A | 0.01 (0.46) 12 | 0.16 (0.53) 1409 | 0.331 | * | 0.14 (0.49) 601 | 0.16 (0.55) 838 | 0.26 (0.52) 163 | 0.037 | |
3 | * | −0.27 (0.7) 278 | N/A | * | −0.27 (0.7) 225 | N/A | * | −0.36 (0.68) 109 | −0.21 (0.72) 147 | −0.15 (0.65) 21 | 0.212 | |
Chile 2 | 1 | −0.12 (0.99) 327 | −0.02 (0.91) 8071 | 0.077 | −0.14 (0.99) 292 | −0.03 (0.91) 8383 | 0.068 | −0.01 (0.99) 100 | −0.35 (0.92) 1717 | −0.05 (0.89) 5245 | 0.24 (0.90) 2139 | <0.001 |
China | 1 | 0.06 (0.56) 9 | −0.08 (0.58) 968 | 0.464 | −0.2 (0.47) 29 | −0.08 (0.59) 943 | 0.253 | * | −0.31 (0.57) 34 | −0.1 (0.56) 742 | 0.06 (0.64) 178 | <0.001 |
Colombia 1 | 1 | −0.11 (0.78) 47 | 0.29 (0.96) 593 | 0.001 | 0.001 (1.07) 99 | 0.28 (0.92) 591 | 0.015 | −0.23 (0.92) 27 | 0.1 (0.96) 238 | 0.33 (0.93) 375 | * | <0.001 |
2 | 0.09 (0.93) 43 | 0.2 (0.93) 535 | 0.495 | −0.18 (1.31) 59 | 0.21 (0.86) 569 | 0.032 | −0.29 (1.01) 21 | −0.06 (0.93) 217 | 0.29 (0.87) 337 | * | <0.001 | |
Colombia 2 | 1 | −0.1 (0.77) 128 | 0.14 (0.78) 1062 | 0.001 | −0.03 (0.78) 229 | 0.13 (0.8) 1080 | 0.005 | * | −0.23 (0.82) 140 | 0.06 (0.78) 744 | 0.32 (0.78) 393 | <0.001 |
Ecuador | 1 | 0.5 (1.05) 12 | 0.38 (1.48) 133 | 0.733 | −0.17 (1.45) 89 | 0.44 (1.49) 293 | 0.001 | −0.27 (2.04) 14 | 0.19 (1.45) 433 | 0.65 (1.32) 197 | 0.70 (1.56) 11 | <0.001 |
Ethiopia | 1 | −0.26 (0.45) 16 | −0.08 (0.6) 174 | 0.152 | −0.13 (0.64) 84 | −0.08 (0.56) 103 | 0.583 | −0.07 (0.6) 168 | −0.29 (0.5) 22 | * | * | 0.102 |
2 | −0.59 (0.78) 33 | −0.34 (0.56) 407 | 0.088 | −0.4 (0.58) 328 | −0.27 (0.59) 111 | 0.042 | −0.39 (0.6) 385 | −0.19 (0.46) 54 | * | * | 0.017 | |
3 | −0.8 (0.5) 35 | −0.58 (0.46) 421 | 0.017 | −0.65 (0.47) 345 | −0.44 (0.42) 109 | <0.001 | −0.62 (0.46) 402 | −0.45 (0.47) 53 | * | * | 0.016 | |
Jamaica 1 | 1 | 0.04 (0.53) 131 | 0.22 (0.49) 94 | 0.01 | −0.17 (0.45) 14 | 0.14 (0.52) 210 | 0.026 | * | * | 0.12 (0.5) 216 | * | N/A |
2 | 0.35 (0.78) 130 | 0.55 (0.68) 88 | 0.044 | * | 0.44 (0.74) 215 | N/A | * | * | 0.46 (0.71) 208 | * | N/A | |
Jamaica 2 | 1 | ND | ND | −0.23 (0.76) 122 | 0.55 (0.57) 37 | <0.001 | * | −0.03 (0.77) 138 | −0.15 (0.88) 21 | * | 0.54 | |
2 | ND | ND | 0.78 (1.02) 62 | 0.97 (0.87) 97 | 0.213 | * | 0.93 (0.96) 138 | 0.73 (0.75) 21 | * | 0.36 | ||
3 | ND | ND | 1.61 (0.99) 48 | 1.86 (0.98) 111 | 0.141 | * | 1.81 (0.98) 138 | 1.66 (1.08) 21 | * | 0.52 | ||
Madagascar | 1 | ND | ND | −0.39 (0.94) 113 | −0.23 (0.9) 89 | 0.205 | −0.53 (0.84) 51 | −0.35 (0.99) 118 | −0.03 (0.89) 35 | * | 0.054 | |
Netherlands 1 | 1 | −1.02 (1.02) 97 | −0.23 (1.02) 1888 | <0.001 | −0.87 (1.04) 96 | −0.17 (1) 1264 | <0.001 | * | −0.22 (1.01) 602 | −0.28 (1.05) 1008 | −0.32 (1.06) 328 | 0.335 |
2 | −0.48 (1.18) 69 | 0.06 (0.9) 1689 | <0.001 | −0.42 (1.32) 75 | 0.07 (0.92) 1149 | 0.003 | * | 0.02 (0.94) 520 | 0.08 (0.88) 901 | −0.03 (0.99) 299 | 0.157 | |
3 | −0.83 (1.1) 106 | −0.03 (0.9) 1851 | <0.001 | −0.46 (1.07) 120 | −0.05 (0.9) 1793 | <0.001 | * | −0.09 (0.94) 593 | −0.1 (0.92) 994 | 0.02 (0.94) 325 | 0.156 | |
4 | −0.59 (1.08) 105 | −0.05 (0.92) 1809 | <0.001 | −0.41 (0.93) 49 | −0.07 (0.93) 1830 | 0.011 | * | −0.15 (0.97) 579 | −0.09 (0.94) 973 | 0.1 (0.84) 320 | <0.001 | |
5 | −1.01 (1.1) 110 | −0.25 (0.95) 1766 | <0.001 | −0.83 (1.33) 43 | −0.28 (0.96) 1804 | 0.011 | * | −0.3 (1.03) 566 | −0.34 (0.97) 965 | −0.14 (0.91) 306 | 0.006 | |
6 | −0.92 (1.11) 98 | −0.37 (1.07) 1694 | <0.001 | −0.99 (1.5) 30 | −0.39 (1.06) 1739 | 0.002 | * | −0.43 (1.12) 540 | −0.42 (1.06) 924 | −0.28 (1.03) 292 | 0.104 | |
7 | −0.77 (1.14) 97 | −0.37 (1.06) 1669 | 0.001 | −1 (1.7) 33 | −0.38 (1.05) 1706 | 0.001 | * | −0.47 (1.11) 528 | −0.39 (1.04) 918 | −0.3 (1.06) 286 | 0.079 | |
8 | −0.68 (1.07) 95 | −0.22 (1.1) 1580 | <0.001 | * | −0.4 (1.09) 40 | N/A | * | −0.36 (1.09) 508 | −0.24 (1.11) 871 | −0.05 (1.1) 269 | <0.001 | |
9 | −0.25 (1.25) 106 | −0.02 (1.12) 1703 | 0.059 | −1.15 (1.84) 16 | −0.01 (1.12) 1746 | 0.026 | * | −0.3 (1.16) 557 | 0.04 (1.1) 925 | 0.32 (1.04) 293 | <0.001 | |
South Africa | 1 | 0.69 (0.55) 51 | 1.01 (0.64) 433 | <0.001 | ND | ND | * | 0.98 (0.74) 55 | 1.01 (0.62) 376 | 0.71 (0.6) 41 | 0.020 | |
2 | 0.48 (0.82) 17 | 0.5 (0.7) 257 | 0.946 | 0.06 (1.02) 12 | 0.56 (0.71) 137 | 0.026 | * | 0.33 (0.59) 33 | 0.49 (0.74) 206 | 0.71 (0.52) 32 | 0.096 | |
3 | −0.24 (1.04) 188 | −0.02 (1.03) 1609 | 0.007 | −0.11 (1.06) 299 | 0.08 (1.02) 1020 | 0.006 | −0.02 (1.01) 20 | −0.13 (1.11) 224 | −0.05 (1.02) 1337 | 0.08 (1.01) 215 | 0.229 |
*<10 observations, N/A=Not applicable, ND=No data available. Differences significant <0.05 are in bold.
†Low birth weight is defined as <2.5 kg and stunted is height-for-age z-score of <−2 SD of the median WHO Growth Standards for same-age and same-sex children.32
Subgroup data are mean (SD) n.