PMM strategies addressed in the literature between 2000 and 2018: regional distribution, study designs, intervention strategies and outcomes
| Sub-Saharan Africa (col. %) | South Asia (col. %) | East Asia and Pacific (col. %) | Latin America and Caribbean (col. %) | Middle East and North Africa (col. %) | |
| Impact evaluations | 56 | 19 | 11 | 9 | 5 |
| Study designs | |||||
| RCT | 73 | 81 | 75 | 54 | 63 |
| Controlled before and after | 19 | 15 | 19 | 38 | 13 |
| Other designs per protocol | 8 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 24 |
| PMM strategies and interventions | |||||
| 1. Implementation strategies | |||||
| In-service and continuing education | 41 | 50 | 47 | 69 | 63 |
| Supervision | 8 | 31 | 6 | – | – |
| Continuous quality improvement | 5 | – | – | – | – |
| 2. Accountability arrangements | |||||
| Social accountability | 8 | – | – | – | – |
| Public release of performance information | – | 24 | – | – | – |
| Audit and feedback | 2 | – | – | 8 | – |
| 3. Financial arrangements | |||||
| Performance-based financing and incentives | 27 | 4 | 12 | 23 | 25 |
| Outcomes | |||||
| Provider outputs and outcomes | 32 | 54 | 61 | 28 | 56 |
| Organisational outcomes | 17 | 3 | 11 | 11% | 11% |
| Patient outcomes | 14 | 43 | – | 22% | 33% |
| Health outcomes at population level | 33 | – | 28 | 39% | – |
| Social and equity outcomes | 4 | – | – | – | – |
PMM, performance measurement and management; RCT, randomised controlled trial.