Multivariate decomposition of household-level, mother-level, child-level, and maternal/delivery care and other intervention-related differences in the under-five mortality rate (U5MR), showing contributions to the U5MR gap attributed to differences in endowments and to differences in coefficients, Ghana DHS 2003, 2008 and 2014
| 2003 GDHS–2008 GDHS | 2003 GDHS–2014 GDHS | 2008 GDHS–2014 GDHS | ||||
| Endowments | Coefficient | Endowments | Coefficient | Endowments | Coefficient | |
| Age of household head | −8.21×10−6 | −3.17×10−3 | −3.38×10−4 | −5.21×10−3 | −2.83×10−5 | 3.86×10−3 |
| Sex of household head: Male | −1.10×10−5 | 6.67×10−4 | 1.21×10−5 | 2.99×10−3 | 2.07×10−5 | 1.32×10−4 |
| Female | −1.10×10−5 | −2.40×10−4 | 1.24×10−5 | −1.08×10−3 | 2.09×10−5 | −5.01×10−5 |
| Place: Urban | −1.45×10−4 | −3.39×10−6 | −9.49×10−5 | 5.93×10−4 | −9.72×10−5 | 1.40×10−3 |
| Rural | −1.45×10−4 | 7.16×10−6 | −9.51×10−5 | −1.25×10−3 | −9.74×10−5 | −2.33×10−3 |
| Region: Western | 9.77×10−5 | −4.23×10−4 | 9.88×10−6 | −1.51×10−3 | −7.51×10−5 | 2.56×10−4 |
| Central | 3.36×10−5 | 8.90×10−5 | 1.70×10−4 | 8.16×10−4 | 9.34×10−5 | 9.51×10−4 |
| Greater Accra Central | −1.57×10−4 | −1.84×10−5 | −7.09×10−4 | −4.55×10−4 | −6.77×10−4* | −1.15×10−3 |
| Volta | −1.18×10−5 | −4.26×10−4 | 1.85×10−6 | −7.49×10−4 | −8.63×10−6 | 1.99×10−3 |
| Eastern | 2.85×10−5 | 9.23×10– 5 | −3.13×10−5 | 1.17×10−3 | 6.84×10−5 | 9.57×10−4 |
| Ashanti | −5.19×10−6 | −1.98×10−4 | 1.64×10−5* | 1.85×10−3 | −5.47×10−5 | 4.5×10−3* |
| Brong Ahafo | 9.85×10−5 | −2.09×10−4 | 6.88×10−5 | −5.33×10−4 | 2.71×10−5 | 1.98×10−4 |
| Northern | 2.90×10−4** | 4.17×10−4 | −7.08×10−5 | 3.35×10−4 | −7.04×10−5 | −3.05×10−3 |
| Upper East | 2.51×10−5 | 1.43×10−4 | 1.72×10−4 | 1.73×10−4 | 1.31×10−4 | −4.47×10−4 |
| Upper West | −1.34×10−4*** | 1.64×10−4 | −3.37×10−5 | −1.19×10−4 | −9.52×10−6 | −9.98×10−4** |
| Wealth: Poorest | −1.26×10−5 | 4.17×10−4 | −2.98×10−4 | 3.09×10−3 | −3.28×10−4 | 1.92×10−3 |
| Poorer | 3.13×10−5 | −4.51×10−4 | −1.94×10−5 | −6.17×10−5 | −1.59×10−6 | 2.74×10−3 |
| Middle | −2.07×10−5 | −1.18×10−4 | 1.75×10−5 | −1.59×10−3 | −3.39×10−5 | −1.77×10−3 |
| Richer | 4.18×10−5 | 1.42×10−4 | −3.77×10−5 | −1.14×10−4 | 1.03×10−5 | −9.72×10−4 |
| Richest | −6.97×10−8 | 2.32×10−5 | −1.32×10−4 | −4.11×10−4 | −1.17×10−4 | −7.56×10−4 |
| Household:<5 residents | 0.4×10−4** | 2.76×10−4 | 4.96×10−4** | 2.29×10−3 | 4.13×10−5* | 1.44×10−3 |
| 5–7 residents | 3.02×10−5* | −6.20×10−4 | −1.95×10−4** | −3.39×10−3* | −2.82×10−4* | −9.04×10−4 |
| 8+residents | 1.56×10−4 | 1.34×10−4 | 3.83×10−4 | 2.16×10−4 | 2.48×10−4 | −3.56×10−4 |
| Household access to an improved water source: Improved | −1.63×10−4 | −2.44×10−4 | 6.28×10−5 | 5.69×10−4 | 1.56×10−6 | 2.13×10−3 |
| Not improved | −1.63×10−4 | 7.89×10−5 | 6.29×10−5 | −1.84×10−4 | 1.57×10−6 | −3.48×10−4 |
| Household access to improved sanitation: Improved not shared | −1.26×10−4 | −4.05×10−5 | −8.39×10−5 | −1.29×10−3* | −2.03×10−4 | −1.16×10−3 |
| Improved shared | −5.87×10−5 | 1.30×10−3 | −1.73×10−4 | 7.16×10−3* | 7.26×10−5 | 2.42×10−3 |
| Not improved | −5.89×10−4 | −5.22×10−4 | 4.67×10−5 | 4.03×10−4 | −5.66×10−5 | 4.13×10−3 |
| Mother’s age at child’s birth:<18 | 2.76×10−5 | −1.3×10−3 | 2.07×10−4 | −5.28×10−3 | 2.1×10−4 | −1.22×10−4 |
| 18–34 | −2.08×10−5 | −2.07×10−3 | −1.18×10−4 | −6.11×10−3 | −1.16×10−4 | 4.36×10−3 |
| 35+ | 1.17×10−5 | 2.24×10−5 | 4.88×10−5 | 8.22×10−5 | 4.52×10−5 | −1.89×10−5 |
| Marital status: Never married | −1.86×10−4 | −1.46×10−4 | 5.92×10−4* | 1.57×10−4 | 3.97×10−4 | 2.18×10−3* |
| Currently married | −2.80×10−5 | 1.73×10−3 | 1.87×10−4 | −1.45×10−3 | 2.64×10−4 | −1.71×10−2 |
| Formerly married | −6.74×10−5 | 1.90×10−4 | 1.13×10−5 | −2.33×10−4 | −7.73×10−5 | −1.42×10−3 |
| Educational attainment: None | −4.79×10−4 | 2.37×10−4 | −1.54×10−4 | −1.08×10−3 | −2.4×10−4 | −1.76×10−3 |
| Primary | 2.48×10−4* | 7.18×10−4 | −2.66×10–7 | −1.09×10−3 | 1.15×10−6 | −6.89×10−3* |
| Secondary | 4.82×10−4 | 1.14×10−3 | −7.69×10−4 | −1.09×10−3 | −5.86×10−4 | −1.03×10−2 |
| Tertiary | −4.13×10−4 | −7.84×10−5 | 1.58×10−4 | 1.19×10−4 | 6.04×10−5 | 1.39×10−3 |
| Sex of Child: Male | −6.27×10−6 | −1.47×10−4 | 3.23×10−5 | 7.94×10−4 | 1.15×10−5 | 1.64×10−3 |
| Female | −6.28×10−6 | 1.43×10−4 | 3.27×10−5 | −7.71×10−4 | 1.20×10−5 | −1.52×10−3 |
| Birth type: Single birth | 5.85×10−5** | 1.20×10−3 | 1.94×10−4*** | 1.09×10−3 | 1.60×10−4** | −8.15×10−3 |
| Multiple birth | 5.83×10−5** | −4.99×10−5 | 1.91×10−4*** | −4.53×10−5 | 1.56×10−4** | 3.74×10−4 |
| Birth order: First | −1.53×10−6 | −3.84×10−5 | −1.07×10−4 | −2.23×10−3 | −3.02×10−5 | −3.51×10−3 |
| Second | −1.32×10−4 | −1.91×10−4 | −1.06×10−5 | 7.96×10−4 | −3.71×10−6 | 2.50×10−3 |
| Third | 5.21×10−5 | 8.35×10−5 | 5.92×10−5 | 3.60×10−4 | 1.14×10−5 | 2.24×10−4 |
| Fourth or higher | −2.48×10−4 | 2.61×10−4 | −3.13×10−4 | 1.43×10−3 | −6.85×10−5 | 5.93×10−4 |
| Delivered in health facility: No | 2.27×10−5 | 1.72×10−4 | 4.20×10−4 | −1.00×10−4 | 4.00×10−5 | 1.83×10−4 |
| Yes | 2.27×10−5 | −1.44×10−4 | 4.20×10−4 | 8.37×10−5 | 3.99×10−5 | −2.47×10−4 |
| Number of children slept under mosquito net previous net: None | −3.37×10−3*** | 9.16×10−4 | −2.16×10−3** | 1.16×10−4 | −3.74×10−4* | −4.26×10−3 |
| One or more | −3.37×10−3*** | −1.82×10−4 | −2.16×10−3** | −2.30×10−5 | −3.73×10−4* | 3.69×10−3 |
| Total | −7.86×10−3** | −4.83×10−4 | −4.00×10−3* | −1.06×10−2** | −1.84×10−3* | −3.44×10−2*** |
| Percent | 94.22 | 5.78 | 27.43 | 72.57 | 5.09 | 94.92 |
| Under-five Mortality Rate difference (per 1,000) | 31*** | 51*** | 20*** | |||
P value notation: ***p<0.001, **p<0.01, *p<0.05.
DHS, Demographic and Health Surveys; GDHS, Ghana Demographic and Health Surveys.