Multivariate decomposition of household-level, mother-level, child-level and maternal/delivery care and other intervention-related differences in the infant mortality rate (IMR), showing contributions to the IMR gap attributed to differences in endowments and to differences in coefficients, Ghana DHS 2003, 2008 and 2014
| 2003 GDHS–2008 GDHS | 2003 GDHS–2014 GDHS | 2008 GDHS–2014 GDHS | ||||
| Endowments | Coefficient | Endowments | Coefficient | Endowments | Coefficient | |
| Age of household head | −7.43×10−5 | 9.08×10−1 | −3.60×10−4 | 6.53×10−4 | −2.95×10−5 | 4.22×10−3 |
| Sex of household head: Male | −5.28×10−6 | −3.26×10−1 | 3.39×10−6 | 2.08×10−3 | −5.59×10−6 | −4.37×10−4 |
| Female | −5.27×10−6 | 1.18×10−1 | 3.46×10−6 | −7.51×10−4 | −5.65×10−6 | 1.66×10−4 |
| Place: Urban | −1.74×10−4 | −8.16×10−2 | −2.97×10−5 | 1.59×10−3 | −3.36×10−5 | 2.25×10−3 |
| Rural | −1.74×10−4 | 1.72×10−1 | −2.98×10−5 | −3.34×10−3 | −3.37×10−5 | −3.74×10−3 |
| Region: Western | 6.54×10−5 | 1.64×10−1 | 7.83×10−6 | −1.02×10−3 | −5.40×10−5 | −7.05×10−5 |
| Central | −1.53×10−5 | −1.19×10−2 | 6.23×10−5 | 4.34×10−4 | 2.22×10−5 | 6.82×10−4 |
| Greater Accra Central | −1.27×10−4 | −1.19×10−1 | −6.84×10−4 | 3.02×10−4 | −6.04×10−5 | −1.38×10−3 |
| Volta | −1.04×10−5 | 2.50×10−1 | 1.46×10−6 | −7.23×10−4 | −6.51×10−6 | 1.92×10−3 |
| Eastern | 3.46×10−6 | −6.73×10−2 | −3.12×10−5 | 1.07×10−3 | 6.05×10−5 | 7.14×10−4 |
| Ashanti | 2.34×10−6 | 9.06×10−2 | 1.35×10−5 | 1.32×10−3 | −4.02×10−5 | 3.08×10−3 |
| Brong Ahafo | 1.75×10−4 | 2.45×10−1 | 6.49×10−5 | −6.84×10−4 | 2.09×10−5 | 1.23×10−3 |
| Northern | 2.8×10−4** | −2.42×10−1 | −6.45×10−5 | 1.09×10−4 | −7.33×10−5 | −3.17×10−3 |
| Upper east | 1.42×10−5 | −6.24×10−2 | 1.23×10−4 | 9.85×10−5 | 8.06×10−5 | −2.96×10−4 |
| Upper west | −1.19×10−4*** | −8.31×10−2 | −4.53×10−5 | −1.17×10−4 | −1.31×10−5 | −8.17×10−4 * |
| Wealth: Poorest | −1.07×10−5 | −3.33×10−1 | −3.41×10−4 | 4.02×10−3 | −3.26×10−4 | 2.34×10−3 |
| Poorer | 2.97×10−5 | 1.47×10−1 | −4.36×10−6 | 5.90×10−4 | 9.22×10−6 | 2.50×10−3 |
| Middle | −2.06×10−5 | 7.95×10−2 | 1.43×10−5 | −1.52×10−3 | −2.57×10−5 | −1.64×10−3 |
| Richer | 4.5×10−5 | −1.12×10−1 | −3.15×10−5 | 6.45×10−5 | 7.08×10−6 | −9.37×10−4 |
| Richest | −6.81×10−8 | 1.26×10−1 | −1.77×10−4 | −1.52×10−3 | −1.45×10−4 | −9.61×10−4 |
| Household: <5 residents | 3.02×10−4** | −1.42×10−1 | 3.81×10−4** | 1.71×10−3 | 2.78×10−5 | 6.79×10−4 |
| 5–7 residents | 2.25×10−5 | 3.27×10−1 | −1.8×10−4* | −3.4×10−3* | −2.34×10−4 | −1.60×10−3 |
| 8+ residents | 1.20×10−4 | −7.26×10−2 | 2.22×10−4 | 6.04×10−4 | 1.19×10−4 | 3.62×10−4 |
| Household access to improved water source: Improved | −1.76×10−4 | 1.67×10−1 | −1.52×10−4 | −6.52×10−4 | −6.72×10−5 | −2.76×10−4 |
| Not improved | −1.76×10−4 | −5.4×10−2 | −1.52×10−4 | 2.10×10−4 | −6.76×10−5 | 4.51×10−5 |
| Household access to improved toilet: Improved not shared | −1.31×10−4 | −2.28×10−2 | −5.59×10−5 | −8.62×10−4 | −1.09×10−4 | −1.02×10-−3 |
| Improved shared | −3.5×10−6 | −5.76×10−1 | −2.23×10−4 | 6.92×10−3* | 8.33×10−5 | 3.98×10−3 |
| Not improved | −5.37×10−4 | 3.56×10−1 | −3.95×10−5 | −7.94×10−4 | 1.14×10−4 | 2.28×10−3 |
| Mother’s age at child’s birth: <18 | 2.47×10−5 | 6.45×10−1 | 1.71×10−4 | −3.94×10−3 | 1.57×10−4 | 4.72×10−4 |
| 18–34 | −1.72×10−5 | 1.02×100 | −1.10×10−4 | −5.04×10−3 | −1.05×10−4 | 3.11×10−3 |
| 35+ | 1.01×10−5 | −1.11×10−2 | 4.25×10– 5 | 6.32×10−5 | 3.66×10−5 | −2.09×10−5 |
| Marital status: Never married | −1.64×10−4 | 7.66×10−2 | 4.61×10−4* | 1.31×10−4 | 2.58×10−4 | 1.80×10−3* |
| Currently married | −2.41×10−5 | −6.44×10−1 | 9.08×10−6 | 3.18×10−5 | 3.46×10−5 | −9.22×10−3 |
| Formerly married | −6.05×10−5 | −1.19×10−1 | 1.27×10−5 | −2.88×10−4 | −8.72×10−5 | −1.47×10−3 |
| Educational attainment: None | −2.13×10−4 | −2.26×10−1 | 1.99×10−4 | −4.1×10−4 | −6.04×10−6 | −1.76×10−3 |
| Primary | 2.09×10−4 * | −3.71×10−1 | 3.59×10−5 | −1.44×10−3 | 5.92×10−5 | −6.53×10−3* |
| Secondary | 4.66×10−4 | −6.14×10−1 | −4.71×10−4 | −9.03×10−4 | −2.96×10−4 | −8.84×10−3 |
| Tertiary | −3.32×10−4 | 4.43×10−2 | 2.08×10−4 | 1.11×10−4 | 1.01×10−4 | 1.28×10−3 |
| Sex of child: Male | 3.99×10−6 | 1.60×10−1 | 2.14×10−5 | −4.94×10−4 | 6.91×10−6 | 1.72×10−4 |
| Female | 4.00×10−6 | −1.55×10−1 | 2.16×10−5 | 4.80×10−4 | 7.26×10−6 | −1.6×10−4 |
| Birth type: Single birth | 5.15×10−5** | −8.75×10−1 | 1.74×10−4 *** | 3.00×10−3 | 1.33×10−4 | −6.46×10−3 |
| Multiple birth | 5.13×10−5** | 3.63×10−2 | 1.70×10−4 *** | −1.24×10−4 | 1.29×10−4 | 2.97×10−4 |
| Birth order: First | 1.55×10−5 | −3.94×10−2 | −8.65×10−5 | −1.86×10−3 | −2.06×10−5 | −3.45×10−3 |
| Second | −1.38×10−4 * | 8.15×10−2 | −3.41×10−5 | 9.49×10−4 | −6.95×10−6 | 2.24×10−3 |
| Third | 7.95×10−5 | −6.18×10−2 | 6.83×10−5 | 2.16×10−4 | 1.25×10−5 | −2.09×10−4 |
| Fourth or higher | −1.26×10−4 | 6.65×10−2 | −2.79×10−4 | 7.87×10−4 | −5.52×10−5 | 1.93×10−3 |
| Delivered in health facility: No | −3.93×10−5 | −5.66×10−2 | 8.43×10−4 | −1.66×10−3 | 3.71×10−4 | −1.56×10−3 |
| Yes | −3.93×10−5 | 4.73×10−2 | 8.42×10−4 | 1.38×10−3 | 3.71×10−4 | 2.10×10−3 |
| Number of children slept under mosquito net previous net: None | −2.77×10−3*** | −5.3×10−1 | −1.74×10−3* | −5.78×10−5 | −2.73×10−4 | −4.14×10−3 |
| One or more | −2.77×10−3*** | 1.05×10−1 | −1.74×10−3* | 1.15×10−5 | −2.71×10−4 | 3.59×10−3 |
| Total | −6.47×10−3** | 1.40×10−3 | −2.87×10−3 | −7.78×10−3* | −7.56×10−4 | −3.14×10−2*** |
| Per cent | 127.64 | −27.64 | 26.93 | 73.07 | 2.35 | 97.65 |
| Infant mortality rate difference (per 1000) | 14*** | 23*** | 9*** | |||
P value notation: ***p<0.001, **p<0.01, *p<0.05.
GDHS, Ghana Demographic Health Surveys; n/a, not applicable since variable was not measured.