Table 4

Overall distribution of prevalence of major non-communicable disease risk factors by iHDSS. The values are numbers and percentages (95% CI) and means (SD)

NCD risk factors	Overall			West Hiri			Asaro			Karkar Island			p Value*
NCD risk factors	N	n	% (95% CI)	N	n	% (95% CI)	N	n	% (95% CI)	N	n	% (95% CI)	p Value*
Daily tobacco smokers†	526	253	48 (44 to 53)	155	64	41 (34 to 50)	171	85	50 (42 to 57)	200	104	52 (45 to 59)	0.170
Male	248	171	69 (63 to 75)	71	47	66 (54 to 77)	90	62	69 (58 to 78)	87	62	71 (61 to 80)	0.588
Female	278	82	29 (24 to 35)	84	17	20 (12 to 30)	81	23	28 (19 to 40)	113	42	37 (28 to 47)	0.035
Types of tobacco smoked		224		60			76			88
Manufactured filtered cigarette		27	12 (8 to 17)		21	35 (23 to 48)		6	8 (3 to 17)		0	0 (0 to 4)	<0.001
Unfiltered dark tobacco (spear/mutrus)		42	19 (14 to 25)		39	65 (52 to 77)		2	3 (0 to 9)		1	1 (0 to 6)	<0.001
Home-grown tobacco (brus)		155	69 (58 to 70)		0	0 (0 to 6)		68	89 (80 to 95)		87	99 (94 to 100)	<0.001
Current alcohol consumption‡	523	118	23 (19 to 26)	152	66	43 (35 to 52)	171	38	22 (16 to 29)	200	14	7 (4 to 12)	0.001
Male	248	96	39 (33 to 45)	71	49	69 (57 to 79)	90	33	37 (27 to 47)	87	14	16 (9 to 26)	0.002
Female	275	22	8 (5 to 12)	81	17	21 (13 to 31)	81	5	6 (2 to 14)	113	0	0 (0 to 3)	0.004
Alcohol frequency past 12 months	185			89			60			36
Daily		5	3 (1 to 6)		0	0 (0 to 4)		5	8 (3 to 18)		0	0 (0 to 10)	0.023
5–6 days/week		7	4 (2 to 8)		0	0 (0 to 4)		7	12 (5 to 23)		0	0 (0 to 10)	0.004
1–4 days/week		12	6 (3 to 11)		6	7 (3 to 14)		5	8 (3 to 18)		1	3 (0 to 15)	0.513
1–3 days/month		58	31 (25 to 39)		40	45 (34 to 56)		12	20 (11 to 32)		6	17 (6 to 33)	0.004
Less than once a month		103	55 (48 to 63)		43	48 (38 to 59)		31	52 (38 to 65)		29	81 (64 to 92)	0.016
Chewing betel nut§	520	386	74 (70 to 78)	155	145	94 (89 to 97)	168	93	55 (47 to 63)	197	148	75 (68 to 81)	<0.001
Male	245	179	73 (67 to 79)	71	64	90 (81 to 96)	89	52	58 (47 to 69)	85	63	74 (63 to 83)	<0.001
Female	275	207	75 (70 to 80)	84	81	96 (90 to 99)	79	41	52 (40 to 63)	112	85	76 (67 to 83)	<0.001
Betel nut with betel bean and slaked lime	386	357	92 (89 to 95)	145	128	88 (82 to 93)	93	84	90 (83 to 96)	148	145	98 (94 to 100)	0.012
Stress	771	246	32 (29 to 35)	266	122	46 (40 to 52)	254	112	44 (38 to 50)	252	12	5 (2 to 8)	<0.001
Male	360	115	33 (28 to 38)	114	49	43 (34 to 53)	130	61	47 (38 to 56)	117	5	4 (1 to 10)	<0.001
Female	411	131	31 (26 to 35)	152	73	48 (40 to 56)	124	51	41 (32 to 50)	135	7	5 (2 to 10)	<0.001
Insufficient physical activity¶	504	101	20 (17 to 24)	169	39	23 (17 to 30)	186	12	6 (4 to 11)	149	50	34 (26 to 42)	<0.001
Male	233	37	16 (11 to 21)	76	14	18 (10 to 29)	94	5	5 (2 to 12)	63	18	29 (18 to 41)	<0.001
Female	271	64	24 (19 to 29)	93	25	27 (18 to 37)	92	7	8 (3 to 15)	86	32	37 (27 to 48)	<0.001
Mean (SD) BMI (kg/m²)	767		23.9±5.7	264		26±7.1	252		24.0±4.4	251		21.5±4.0	<0.001
Overweight (BMI ≥25–29.9 kg/m²)	767	144	19 (16 to 22)	264	65	25 (20 to 30)	252	59	23 (18 to 29)	251	20	8 (5 to 12)	<0.001
Male	356	67	19 (15 to 23)	112	32	29 (20 to 38)	128	29	23 (16 to 31)	116	6	5 (2 to 11)	<0.001
Female	411	77	19 (15 to 23)	152	33	22 (15 to 29)	124	30	24 (17 to 33)	135	14	10 (6 to 17)	0.009
Obesity (BMI ≥30 kg/m²)	767	82	11 (9 to 13)	264	59	22 (18 to 28)	252	16	6 (4 to 10)	251	7	3 (1 to 6)	<0.001
Male	356	20	6 (3 to 9)	112	15	13 (8 to 21)	128	3	2 (0.5 to 7)	116	2	2 (0.2 to 6)	<0.001
Female	411	62	15 (12 to 19)	152	44	29 (22 to 37)	124	13	10 (6 to 17)	135	5	4 (1 to 8)	<0.001
Mean (SD) WHR	758		0.91±0.09	264		0.88±0.12	250		0.94±0.08	244		0.90±0.06	<0.001
Central obesity (WHR, M≥0.9/F≥0.85)	758	514	68 (64 to 71)	264	138	52 (46 to 58)	250	225	90 (86 to 93)	244	151	62 (56 to 68)	<0.001
Male	351	218	62 (57 to 67)	112	50	45 (35 to 54)	128	125	98 (93 to 100)	111	43	39 (30 to 48)	<0.001
Female	407	296	73 (68 to 77)	152	88	58 (50 to 66)	122	100	82 (74 to 88)	133	108	81 (74 to 87)	<0.001
Mean (SD) SBP (mm Hg)	738		123±17.5	264		125.7±19.8	222		126.7±16.8	252		116.8±13.3	<0.001
Mean (SD) DBP (mm Hg)	738		75.3±10.9	264		77±12.4	222		78.4±9.7	252		70.7±8.5	<0.001
Prehypertension**	738	339	46 (42 to 50)	264	120	46 (39 to 52)	222	123	55 (42 to 62)	252	96	38 (32 to 44)	0.001
Male	344	189	55 (50 to 60)	112	65	58 (48 to 67)	115	67	58 (49 to 67)	117	57	49 (39 to 58)	0.25
Female	394	150	38 (33 to 43)	152	55	36 (29 to 44)	107	56	52 (42 to 62)	135	39	29 (21 to 37)	0.001
Hypertension (≥140/90 mm Hg)	738	118	16 (13 to 19)	264	58	22 (17 to 28)	222	48	22 (16 to 28)	252	12	5 (3 to 8)	<0.001
Male	344	65	19 (15 to 23)	112	32	29 (20 to 38)	115	28	24 (17 to 33)	117	5	4 (1 to 10)	<0.001
Female	394	53	13 (10 to 17)	152	26	17 (14 to 24)	107	20	19 (12 to 27)	135	7	5 (2 to 10)	<0.001
Mean (SD) cholesterol (mmol/L)	708		4.6±1.8	258		5.0±1.8	218		4.7±1.7	232		4.2±1.7	<0.001
Elevated cholesterol (>6.2 mmol/L)	708	123	17 (15 to 20)	258	61	24 (19 to 29)	218	35	16 (11 to 22)	232	27	12 (8 to 17)	0.002
Male	321	50	16 (12 to 20)	108	22	20 (13 to 29)	108	18	17 (10 to 25)	105	10	10 (5 to 17)	0.086
Female	387	73	19 (15 to 23)	150	39	26 (19 to 34)	110	17	15 (9 to 24)	127	17	13 (8 to 21)	0.016
Mean (SD) HDL-C (mmol/L)	709		1.2±0.6	258		1.3±0.5	218		1.1±0.5	233		1.0±0.6	<0.001
Low HDL-C††	709	388	55 (51 to 58)	258	116	45 (39 to 51)	218	127	58 (51 to 65)	233	145	62 (56 to 68)	<0.001
Male	322	142	44 (39 to 50)	108	33	31 (22 to 40)	108	49	45 (36 to 55)	106	60	57 (47 to 66)	0.001
Female	387	246	64 (59 to 68)	150	83	55 (47 to 63)	110	78	71 (61 to 79)	127	85	67 (58 to 75)	0.023
Mean (SD) HbA1c	712		5.4±0.8	253		5.7±1.2	220		5.3±0.3	239		5.2±0.4	<0.001
Prediabetes HbA1c (≥5.7%–6.4%)	712	107	15 (13 to 18)	253	65	26 (20 to 32)	220	25	11 (8 to 16)	239	17	7 (4 to 11)	<0.001
Male	323	41	13 (9 to 17)	107	20	19 (12 to 27)	109	13	12 (7 to 20)	107	8	7 (3 to 14)	0.052
Female	386	66	17 (13 to 21)	146	45	31 (23 to 39)	111	12	11 (6 to 18)	132	9	7 (3 to 13)	<0.001
DMT2 HbA1c (≥6.5%)	712	24	3 (2 to 5)	253	22	9 (6 to 13)	220	0	0 (0 to 2)	239	2	1 (0 to 3)	<0.001
Male	323	8	2 (1 to 5)	107	8	7 (3 to 14)	109	0	0 (0 to 3)	107	0	0 (0 to 3)	<0.001
Female	386	16	4 (2 to 7)	146	14	10 (5 to 16)	111	0	0 (0 to 3)	132	2	2 (0.2 to 5)	<0.001

*p Values were obtained by Pearson’s χ² test and Fisher’s exact test where appropriate for categorical variables and one-way ANOVA for continuous variables, †Current tobacco smoking on a daily basis, ‡Consumption of alcohol within last 30 days.
§Chewed betel nut within last 30 days, ¶Vigorous physical activity <75 min and moderate physical activity <150 min/week, **Prehypertension=SBP>120–139.9 mm Hg and/or DBP 80–89 mm Hg, ††Low HDL-C=<1 mmol/L men and ≤1.3 mmol/L women.
ANOVA, analysis of variance; BMI, body mass index; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; DMT2, diabetes mellitus type 2; HbA1c, haemoglobin A1c; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol; iHDSS, integrated Health and Demographic Surveillance Sites; NCD, non-communicable disease; SBP, systolic blood pressure; WHR, waist-to-hip ratio.