Sexual maltreatment of unaccompanied asylum-seeking minors from the Horn of Africa: A mixed method study focusing on vulnerability and prevention
Introduction
Most British and American child sexual abuse (CSA) research and literature has focused on its prevalence, psychological effects, and therapeutic interventions with children within familial contexts. Relatively little research has examined the wider social contexts related to child sexual maltreatment, the influence of culture, race, ethnicity, and migration, particularly in Britain, nor how such knowledge can be translated into action and policy for prevention.
In addition to the lack of focus on specific issues, Kenny and McEachern's (2000) review of the literature on racial, ethnic, and cultural factors (relevant to American populations) found major methodological weaknesses in many studies of CSA resulting in inconsistencies in findings. Principally they identified a failure to consider the specific country of origin of the study subjects, their socio-economic status, acculturation levels, or family environment, particularly household composition. These factors influence the risk of sexual maltreatment and of victim and carer responses to it; they are therefore important to elucidate.
This paper presents and discusses some of the key findings from the SAFER UK study undertaken by the authors in collaboration with the Ethiopian Community Centre in the UK (Lay, Papadopoulos, & Gebrehiwot, 2007). The study explored the experiences of sexual assault (which we take to mean sexual maltreatment involving physical violence such as rape), sexual abuse (which we take to mean sexual maltreatment not involving physical violence such as voyeurism, flashing and enticing a young person to take part in sexual activities), and sexual harassment (which we define as verbal or other taunts of sexual nature intended to intimidate the victim). For ease of reference we have conflated these terms under the term “sexual maltreatment,” of unaccompanied asylum-seeking minors (UASM) from the Horn of Africa in the UK. Our working definition of “sexual maltreatment of minors” for this study is any sexual offence against a minor (someone aged under 18) perpetrated by adults, adolescents or peers without their consent, or when aged under 13 years irrespective of consent. Less concerned with prevalence and effects of sexual maltreatment, this paper focuses on prevention. Although the study also obtained data from professionals concerned with the welfare of UASM, only the young asylum seekers’ accounts are discussed here.
While the SAFER UK study explored the experiences and perspective of specific ethnic groups in specific socio-economic circumstances, other minors in Britain and elsewhere may face similar risks when similar circumstances prevail; this article therefore should be of interest to those concerned with child protection internationally, particularly with immigrant populations.
Section snippets
Unaccompanied asylum-seeking minors in the UK
An unaccompanied asylum-seeking child (minor) is defined as ‘an individual who is under 18 and applying for asylum in his/her own right, and is separated from both parents and not being cared for by an adult who by law or custom has responsibility to do so’ (Home Office, Immigration and Nationality Directorate, 2007; p. 7). The same document also reported that there were approximately 6000 unaccompanied asylum-seeking minors in the United Kingdom in 2007 supported by local authorities,
Legislation and policy impacting on UASM in the UK
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (OHCHR, General Assembly, 1989) seeks to ensure children in countries signed up to the convention are protected from sexual abuse and exploitation (Article 34). Article 22 states that refugee children have the right to protection and assistance and the same rights as other children wherever they are or whatever their circumstance (UNICEF). UASM and indigenous children in the UK are supported under the same legislative arrangements
The SAFER UK study: background and aims
An earlier study, EMBRACE UK, undertaken by the authors (Papadopoulos & Gebrehiwot, 2002) explored the experiences of 106 Ethiopian asylum seekers in the UK who were aged 12 years upwards. This indicated that being an asylum seeker in a country with a grossly alien culture and social context creates a unique set of psychological and social challenges. Many participants reported having arrived in the UK suffering psychological trauma having witnessed atrocities. They also suffered from the
Design
A retrospective study design was employed to describe the experiences and opinions of sexually maltreated UASM (and relevant key professionals).
Sampling
Purposive sampling methods were used to recruit young people who fulfilled the following selection criteria: currently aged 18–25 years of age; former UASM from Ethiopia, Eritrea or Somalia (the latter two groups were sampled following difficulty recruiting adequate numbers of Ethiopian participants); identified themselves as having been sexually
Characteristics of the participants
Of 52 participants who responded to the question regarding their ethnicity, most were Ethiopian (n = 35: 67%), 10 were Eritrean (19%), 4 Somali (8%) and 3 (6%) were mixed Ethiopian and Eritrean. These ratios reflect the greater success of Ethiopian interviewers in recruiting their country people to participate. Most were female (51/53). Their ages at the time of interview ranged from 17 to 25 years. The majority had arrived in the UK aged 15–17 years; the youngest was 9 years old upon arrival.
Circumstances at the time of first sexual maltreatment
Those aged 16 and 17 (and some younger children) were usually accommodated in semi-independent shared and often mixed sex housing in hostels, hotels, flats, or bed and breakfast. Some (mainly younger ones) were in foster care (n = 9) or residential care (n = 1). Only 31 out of the 53 reported having had a social worker.
The nature of the first sexual maltreatment
The self-completion questionnaire requested the participants to select from a list, the sexual activities they had experienced while being sexually maltreated as an UASM in the UK.
Location of the incidents
Most were sexually maltreated or had a “near miss” where they were living (n = 19). Some incidents occurred in the perpetrator's home (n = 6), while a smaller number occurred at work (in illegal employment), in the perpetrator's car, at friends’ homes, and “outside.” One was sexually harassed over the telephone.
Characteristics of the perpetrators
Participants were asked to describe the socio-demographic characteristics of the perpetrators of their first incident of sexual maltreatment or near miss and whether they had acted singly or in a group. Just over half said that the perpetrators had operated in groups of two or more. A large majority said that they were male; only two (one male and one female) reported single female perpetrators. When asked how old they thought the perpetrators were, 24% thought they were teenagers, 42% in their
Preventing sexual maltreatment: the SAFER UK model of child protection
Below we present the participants’ suggestions for action to prevent sexual maltreatment of UASM along with our interpretation of the analysis of the data.
Based on the findings from the study, we devised a model that addresses the prevention of child sexual maltreatment and may also be useful for assessing risk. The model places the child (minor) at the center and credits them with having intellectual and emotional resources that will help protect them from being targeted for sexual
Discussion
UASM are exposed to a myriad of personal, social, political, economic, and cultural factors that increase their risk of sexual maltreatment. Their vulnerability and responses to it are shaped by their early experiences as well as their perceptions of the host country. Although UASM share many similarities with indigenous children in care, they may be placed at greater risk of sexual maltreatment by their socio-cultural alienation and the challenges of acculturation, migration status,
Conclusions
Unlike many indigenous children in care in England, UASM often come from positive families (Broad & Robbins, 2005) which is likely to act as a psychological protective factor. However, UASM have to face a range of challenges few indigenous minors have to endure and the stress they suffer is likely to be greatly magnified by the terrible effects of sexual maltreatment. Children who are multiple disadvantaged by refugeedom may pose a significant challenge to the child protection system. Our study
Limitations
The limitations of this study include the small sample size which reduced the statistical robustness of some the findings. In addition, the depth of enquiry was sometimes limited as we employed predominantly young African interviewers who although trained, often lacked experience and were not always comfortable discussing sexual issues. Finally, the study did not inquire into prior victimization which is associated with increased risk of re-victimization (Briere, 1992).
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