Demographic and Household Surveys and geospatial variables used in the study, following the work of Pezzulo et al 23
| Variable | Description |
| Female literacy | Percentage of women between the age of 15 and 49 years who attended primary school and were able to read |
| Malaria prevalence | Proportion of children aged 2–10 years who had Plasmodium falciparum infection |
| Birth interval | Percentage of births with a birth interval of <36 months between birth and conception |
| Access to a health facility | Percentage of children born in the last five years preceding the survey who were delivered in a health facility (used as a proxy for access to a health facility) |
| Poor sanitation practices | Percentage of de jure population using fields, bushes, forests, open bodies of water or other open spaces rather than using the toilet to defecate |
| Vaccination coverage | Percentage of children aged 12–23 months who received measles vaccination at any time prior to the survey |
| Stunting prevalence | Percentage of children with a height that is at least 2 SD below the median height for children of the same sex and age |